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8. Communicative competence (CC)

: language classroom as a locus of meaningful, authentic exchanges among users of a language

: foreign language learning is viewed not just as a potentially predictable developmental process but also as the creation of meaning through interpersonal negotiation among learners

1) Defining communicative competence

: Congnitive psychology -> Social constructivism

: Hymes(1977)- CC: aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts

: a dynamic, interpersonal construct that can be examined only by means of the overt performance of two or more individuals in the process of communication

: linguistic competence ≠ communicative competence

[Strategic Competence (Bachman, 1990)]

2) Language functions

: What is a lg function? The purposes that we accomplish with language

: Forms (e.g., morphemes, words, grammar rules, discourse rules) are required to accomplish a language function

: functions are essentially the purposes that we accomplish with language

: communication may be regarded as a combination of acts, a series of elements with purpose and intent

: communication is functional, purposive, and designed to bring about some effect-some change, however subtle or unobservable-on the environment of hearers and speakers

2-1) Halliday's seven functions of language

① instrumental function: to cause certain events to happen

ex) “Don’t touch the stove.”, “I pronounce you guilty and sentence you to three years in prison.”

② regulatory function: control of events

ex) “Upon good behavior, you will be eligible for parole in 10 months."

③ representational function: to make statements, convey facts and knowledge, explain or report

ex) “The sun is hot.”, “The president gave a speech last night.”

④ interactional function: to ensure social maintenance

ex) Jargon, jokes, folklore, cultural mores, politeness and formality expectations

⑤ personal function: to express feelings, emotions, personality, 'gut-level' reactions

ex) Feelings, emotions, personality, gut-level reactions

⑥ heuristic function: to acquire knowledge, to learn about the environment

ex) “Why” question

⑦ imaginative function: to create imaginary systems or ideas

: these seven functions of language are neither discrete nor mutually exclusive

: a single sentence or conversation might incorporate many different functions simultaneouly

ex) Telling fairy tales, joking, writing a novel, poetry, tongue twisters, puns

2-2) Functional approaches to language teaching

: functional syllabuses(introducing self and other people, exchanging personal information, asking how to spell someone's name...)

: but! textbooks that claim to have a functional base may be "sorely inadequate and even misleading in their representation of language as interaction"

: a function is "covered" does not mean that learners have internalized it for authentic, unrehearsed use in the real world

: communication is qualitative and infinite; syllabus is quantitative and finite

3) Discourse analysis

: examination of the relationship between forms and function of language

: emphasizes intersentential relations in discourse

: discourse is language beyond the sentence

: a single sentence can seldom be fully analyzed without considering its context

: we string many sentences together in interrelated, cohesive units

ex) A: more coffee?

B: I'm okay.

: importance and intersentential relations in discourse

: a stand-alone sentence such as "I didn't like that cake" could be agreement, disagreement, argument, complaint, apology, insult, or simply a comment, depending on context

: with perfect pronunciation and grammar, but fail to achieve the communicative function / understanding the context / understanding the non-verbal features

: approaches that emphasized only the formal aspects of learner language overlooked important discourse functions

4) Pragmatics

: constraints on language comprehension and production may be loosely thought of as the effect of context on strings of linguistic events

: pragmatics considerations allowed all participants to interpret what would otherwise be ambiguous sentences

4-1) Sociopragmatics and Pragmalinguistics

: SLA becomes an exceedingly difficult task when these sociopragmatic or pragmaliguistic constraints are brought to bear. Pragmatic conventions from a learner’s first language can transfer both positively and negatively

: A-what an unusual necklace. It's beautiful!

B-Please take it!

↳ nonnative English speakers misunderstood the illocutionary force

: grammar is almost simple when compared to the complexity of catching on to a seemingly never-ending list of pragmatic constraints

4-2) Language and Gender

: males and females use different syntactic and phonological variants

5) Discourse Style

: style... sets of conventions for selecting words, phrases, discourse, and nonverbal language in specified contexts

① oratorical style: in public speaking

② deliberative style: in addressing audience / typical university classroom lecture

③ consultative style: typically a dialog

ex) Business transactions, doctor-patient conversations

④ causal style: conversations between friend, colleagues, or family

⑤ intimate style: complete absence of social inhibitions

ex) Talk with family, loved ones, and very close friends, where the inner self is revealed

: the acquisition of both styles and registers thus combines a linguistic and culture-learning process

6) Nonverbal communication

: silent language

: the expression of culture is so bound up in nonverbal communication that the barriers to culture learning are more nonverbal than verbal

① Kinesics

: study of relationship between nonlinguistic body motions and communication (e.g., shrug, crossing arms)

: every culture and language uses body language, or kinesics, in unique but clearly interpretable ways

: there is tremendous variation cross-culturally and cross-linguistically in the specific interpretations of gestures

② Eye contact

③ Proxemics

: cultures vary widely in acceptable distances for conversation

④ Artifacts (e.g. clothing and ornamentation)

⑤ Kinesthetics (touching)

⑥ Olfactory Dimensions

: CC includes nonverbal competence-knowledge of all the varying nonverbal semantics of the second culture, and an ability both to send and receive nonverbal signals unambiguously

7) CC in the Classroom: CLT and Task-Based Teaching

: CLT(Communicative Language Teaching) and TBI(Task-Based Instruction)

: communicative competence is such an intricate web of psychological, sociocltural, physical, and linguistic features

7. Sociocultural Factors

1) Culture: definitions and theories

: Rules, Groups, units, Attitudes, values, beliefs, norms and behaviors shared by a group

* Communicated across generations

: John Donne (1624), "no man is an island, entire of itself"

: no society exists without a culture

: culture establishes for each person a context of cognitive and affective behavior / template for personal and social existence

: perception, though, is always subjective

↳ misunderstandings are therefore likely to occur between members of different cultures

: a language is a part of a culture, and a culture is a part of a language

: the acquisition of a second language is also the acquisition of a second culture

: ecumenical approach to culture... see culture framed more in constructivist terms

2) Stereotypes or Generalizations

: if people recognize and understand differing worldviews, they will usually adopt a positive and open-minded attitude toward cross-cultural differences.

: A closed-minded view of such differences often results in the maintenance of a stereotype-an oversimplification and blanker assumption

: to judge a single member of a culture by overall traits of the culture is both to prejudge and to misjudge that person

: a critical awareness of the complex nature of cultural understanding

: culture bias -> viewing every person in a culture as possessing stereotypical straits

3) Attitudes

: attitudes develop early in childhood and are the result of parents' and peers' attitudes, of contact with people who are "different" in any number of ways, and of interacting affective factors in the human experience

: form a apart of one's perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living

: Gardner and Lambert(1972)

↳ studies of the effect of attitudes on language learning, they defined motivation as a construct made up of certain attitudes. The most important of these is group-specific, the attitude learners have toward the members of the cultural group whose language they are learning

: positive attitudes toward itself, the negative language group, and the target language group enhanced proficiency

: teacher needs to be aware that everyone has both positive and negative attitudes

4) Second culture acquisition

: important to understand what we mean by the process of culture learning

: language learners undergo culture learning as a 'process, that is, as a way of perceiving, interpreting, feeling, being in the world'

: second identity.... this creation of a new identity... acculturation

: disruption is severe... person may experience culture shock

: culture shock is associated with feelings of estrangement, anger, hostility, indecision, frustration, unhappiness, sadness, loneliness, homesickness, and even physical illness

: underneath the familiar exterior there are vast differences

: as soon as this newness wears off and the cognitive and affective contradictions of the foreign culture mount up, they become disoriented

* culture shock as the second of four successive stages of culture acquisition

stage 1. excitement and euphoria over the newness

stage 2. culture shock

stage 3. accept the differences (L2 mastery occurs, optimal distance)

stage 4. near or full recovery (assimilation or adaptation)

5) Social distance

: cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that come into contact within an individual

: dissimilarity between two cultures

John Schuman (1976)

* good language learning context (p.197)

: the L2 group is nondominant in relation to the TL group, both groups desire assimilation (or at least acculturation) for the L2 group, low enclosure is the goal of both groups, the two cultures are congruent, the L2 group is small and noncohesive, both groups have positive attitudes toward each other, and the L2 group intends to remain in the target language area for a long time

: the greater the social distance between two cultures, the greater the difficulty the learner will have in learning the second language (Schumann, 2002)

*Willian Action (1979)-perceived social distance

: human beings perceive the culture environment through the filters and screens of their own worldview and then act upon that perception

: acculturation process is a factor of how they perceive their own culture in relation to the culture of the target language

: Professed Difference in Attitude Questionnaire (PDAQ)

↳ measure of perceived social distance

1. distance between themselves and their countrymen in general

2. distance between themselves and members of the target countrymen in general

3. distance between their countrymen and members of the target culture

: successful language learners see themselves as maintaining some distance between themselves and both cultures

: Stage 3 may provide not only the optimal distance but the optimal cognitive and affective tension to produce the necessary pressure to acquire the language

: Brown(1980)-optimal distance model

↳ adult who fails to master a second language in a second culture may for a host of reasons have failed to synchronize linguistic and cultural development

↳ culturally based critical-period hypothesis (stages of acculturation, anomie, social distance, and perceived social distance)

↳ recovery stages are also crucial periods of acquisition

6) Teaching intercultural competence

: we need to be sensitive to the fragility of students by using techniques that promote cultural understanding

*Geert Hofstede(1986)-conceptualizing mismatches.... cultural norms of fifty different countries

1. individualism: a collectivist society is tightly integrated; an individualist society is loosely integrated

2. power distance: all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others

3. uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which people within a culture are made nervous by situation they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or unpredicable...

4. masculinity: opposes femininity

* collectivist societies vs. individualist societies

6.1 Language policy and politics

: every country has come form of explicit, "official," or implicit, "unofficial," policy affecting the status of its native language and one or more foreign languages

6.2 World English

: English as an international language (EIL)

: this process of nativization or "indigenization" of English has spread from the inner circle of countries to an outer circle of countries

: we are advised to view English in terms of a broad range of its functions and the degree of its penetration into a county's society

6.3 ESL and EFL

: the multiplicity of contexts for the use of English worldwide demands a careful look at the variables of each situation before making the blanket generalization that one of two possible models, ESL or EFL, applies

: second language learning in a culture foreign to one’s own potentially involves the deepest form of culture acquisition

6.4 Linguistic imperialism and language rights

: linguistic imperialism or ‘linguicism’

: cultural inequalities between English and other languages

: a main issue in this term is the devaluing of native languages through the colonial spread of English

: one of the most worthy causes we can espouse is the preservation of diversity among human beings

6.5 Language policy and the "English Only" debate

: history indicates that restricting language rights can be divisive and lead to segregationist tendencies in a society

7. Language, Thought, and Culture

: manner in which an idea or “fact” is stated affects the way we conceptualize the idea

7.1 Framing our conceptual universal

① words shapes our lives

② framing reminds us of the importance of language and verbal labels in shaping the way people think

: Ausubel's meaningful cognitive structures

③ the way a sentence is structured will affect nuances of meanings

: Did you see the broken headlight? or Did you see a broken headlight?

④ culture is really an integral part of the interaction between language and thought

: perhapes those forms shape one’s perception of others in relation to self

⑤ lexical items may reflect something about the intersection of culture and cognition

7.2 The Whorfian hypothesis

7.3 Culture in the language classroom

PLLT 6. Personality Factors 

: affective domain of second language acquisition

↳ intrinsic side of affectivity, extrinsic factors

: Ernest Hilgard(1963), purely cognitive theories of learning will be rejected unless a role is assigned to affectivity

: emotional side of human behavior

: culture conflict

: motivation

1) The Affective Domain

: Affect refers to emotion or feeling

: the affective domain is the emotional side of human behavior

① receiving-be aware of the environment surrounding them

② responding-is willing to respond voluntarily without coercion

③ valuing-commit themselves to the value to pursue it, seek it out, and want it, finally, to the point of
conviction

④ organization of values into a system of beliefs

⑤ characterized by and understand themselves in terms of their value system

2) Affective Factors in Second Language Acquisition

: understanding how human beings feel and respond and believe and value is an exceedingly important aspect of a theory of second language acquisition

2-1) Self-Esteem

: no successful cognitive or affective activity can be carried out without some degree of self-esteem, self-confidence, knowledge of your self, and self-efficacy

: personality development universally involves the growth of a person's concept of self, acceptance of self, and reflection of self as seen in the interaction between self and others

: (Coopersmith, 1967) self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold toward themselves

: people derive their sense of self-esteem from the accumulation of experiences

① general or global self-esteem

: relatively stable

② situational or specific self-esteem

: self-appraisals in particular life situations

③ task self-esteem

: particular tasks within specific situations

: specific self-esteem might encompass second language acquisition in general and task self-esteem might appropriately refer to one's self-evaluation of a particular aspect of the process

: Does high self-esteem cause language success, or does language success cause high self-esteem?

2-2) Attribution Theory and Self-Efficacy

: attribution theory focuses on how people explain the causes of their own successes and failures

: internal to the learner-ability, effort

: external circumstances outside of the learner-perceived difficulty of a task, and luck

: self-efficacy (a high sense of self-efficacy, an appropriate degree of effort may be devoted to achieving success)

: a learner with low self-efficacy may quite easily attribute failure to external factors, a relatively unhealthy psychological attitude to bring to any task or an initial lack of ability

: one of the most important roles of successful teachers is to facilitate high levels of self-efficacy in their students

2-3) Willingness to Communicate

: the intention to initiate communication, given a choice

: some learners tend to avoid second language communication

↳ a number of cognitive and affective factors that underlie this tendency

: motivation, personality, intergroup climate, and two levels of self-confidence

: higher levels of WTC were associated with learners' who experienced social support, particularly from friends, offering further evidence of the power of socially constructed conceptions of self

2-4) Inhibition

: sets of defenses to protect the ego

① the new born baby has no concept of its own self

: gradually it learns to identify a self that is distinct from others

② in childhood,

: the growing degrees of awareness, responding, and valuing begin to create a system of affective traits that individuals identify with themselves

③ in adolescence,

: the physical, emotional, and cognitive changes of the preteenager and teenager bring on mounting defensive inhibitions to protect a fragile ego, to ward off ideas, experiences, and feelings that threaten to dismantle the organization of values and beliefs on which appraisals of self-esteem have been founded

: The process of building defenses continues into adulthood

: those with weaker self-esteem maintain walls of inhibition to protect what is self-perceived to be a weak or fragile ego, or a lack of self-confidence in a situation or task

: an adaptive language ego enables learners to lower the inhibitions that may impede success

: empathy and inhibition are closely linked

: the inhibitions, the defenses, that we place between ourselves and others are important factors contributing to second language success

: the openness, vulnerability, and ambiguity tolerance of those with thin ego boundaries create different pathways to success from those with hard-driving, systematic, perfectionistic, thick ego boundaries

: anyone who has learned a foreign language is acutely aware that second language learning actually necessitates the making of mistakes

: Earl Stevick(1976)- language learning as 'alienation'

↳ alienation between the critical me and the performing me, between my native culture and my target culture, between me and my teacher, and between me and my fellow students

↳ this alienation arises from the defenses, which inhibit learning, and their removal can therefore promote language learning

2-5) Risk Takin

: risk taking is an important characteristic of successful learning of a second language

: learners have to be able to gamble a bit, to be willing to try out hunches about the language and take the risk of being wrong

: feel comfortable

: create a climate of acceptance that will stimulate self-confidence

: allowing themselves to take risks without feeling embarrassed

: high risk taking will yield positive results in second language learning; however, such is not usually the case

↳ (Beebe, 1983) person with a high motivation to achieve are... moderate, not high, risk-takers

: (Rubin & Thompson, 1994) successful language learners make willing and accurate guesses

: self-esteem seems to be closely connected to a risk-taking factor

: fossilization, or the relatively permanent incorporation of certain patterns of error may be due to a lack of willingness to take risks

2-6) Anxiety

: at the deepest, or global, level, trait anxiety-predictably and generally anxious

: at the more momentary, or situational level, state anxiety-particular event or act

: recent research on language anxiety focuses more specifically on the situational nature of state anxiety

: foreign language anxiety can be distinguished from other types of anxiety and that it can have a negative effect on the language learning process

: debilitative and facilitative anxiety (harmful and helpful anxiety)

: several studied have suggested the benefit of facilitative anxiety in learning foreign language

: in Bailey's (1983) study, facilitative anxiety was one of the keys to success, closely related to competitiveness

: both too much and too little anxiety may hinder the process of successful second language learning

: anxiety is the cause of poor performance in a second language, or the product of less than satisfactory performance

: anxiety in a foreign language class could be the result of first language deficits, namely, difficulties that students may have with language "codes" (phonological, syntactic, lexical, semantic features)

: Linguistic Coding Deficit Hypothesis (LCDH)

: self-efficacy and attribution are keys to other affective variables, especially to anxiety

2-7) Empathy

: putting yourself into someone else's shoes

: empathy-more possibility of detachment/ sympathy connotes an agreement or harmony bet individuals

: understand the other person's affective and cognitive states

: cognitive empathy

2-8) Extroversion

: a deep-seated need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from other people

: introverts can have an inner strength of character that extroverts do not have

: extroverted person may protect his or her own ego, with extroverted behavior being symptomatic of defensive barriers and high ego boundaries

: introverted, quieter, more reserved person may show high empathy

: introverts were significantly better than extroverts in their pronunciation

: extroverted were likely to make better use of learning strategies

3. Motivation

3-1) Theories of Motivation

3-2) Instrumental and Integrative Orientations

* instrumental

:　acquiring a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals-furthering a career, reading technical material, translation, and so forth

* integrative

: wished to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language group and become involved in social interchange in that group  

3-3) Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

: intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity

: intrinsically motivated behaviors-competence and self-determination

: intrinsic orientations, especially for long-term retention

: extrinsic motivation is fueled by the anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self

넥서스 영문독해연습 501 플러스 후기

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