잉냥이

Behavioristic viewpoint

Pavlov's Classical Behaviorism

: a series of experiences in which he trained a dog to salivate to the tone of a bell

: Classical Conditioning

: learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses

: a previously neutral stimulus (the sound of the bell) had acquired the power to elicit a response (salivation) that was originally elicited by another stimulus (the smell of meat)

: learning -> by the process of conditioning, we build an array of stimulus-response, and more complex behaviors are learned by building up series or chains of responses

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

: Neobehaviorist (because he added a unique dimension to behavioristic psychology -> Respondent Conditioning ), Operant conditioning

: Operant behavior is behavior in which one 'operates' on the environment; within this model the importance of stimuli is deemphasized

: Thorndike's Law of Effect

↳ Reinforcement (satisfactory consequences) -> stronger association of stimuli and responses

↳ Punishment -> weaker association of stimuli and responses

: Punishment can be either the withdrawal of a positive reinforcer or the presentation of an aversive stimulus

: the events or stimuli-the reinforcers-that follow a response and that tend to strengthen behavior or increase the probability of a recurrence of that response constitute a powerful force in the control of human behavior

: reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning than is mere association of a prior stimulus with a following response

: operants are classes of responses

: sets of responses that are emitted and governed by the consequences they produce

: respondents are sets of responses that are elicited by identifiable stimuli

: punishment, in the long run, does not actually eliminate behavior, but that mild punishment may be necessary for temporary suppression of an undesired response

: the best method of extinction... absence of an reinforcement and active reinforcement of alternative responses

* The technology of Teaching (1986)

: programmed instruction (carefully designed program of step-by-step reinforcement)

: it was limited to very specialized subsets of language

* Verbal Behavior (1957)

: language is a system of verbal operants

: Skinnerian view of both language and language learning dominated foreign language teaching methodology for several decades (-> controlled practive of verbal operants under carefully designed schedules of reinforcement)

: ALM (1950s~ early 1970s)

Rational/ Cognitive stance

Ausubel's Subsumption Theory

: learning takes place in the human organism through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions

: meaning is not an implicit response, but a 'clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience'

* Rote VS. Meaningful Learning

: rote learning involves the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure

: meaningful learning, or subsumption; a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure

: any learning situation can be meaningful if

① learners have a meaningful learning set

② the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners

: manufacturing meaningfulness-association, memory strategies

: systematic, meaningful subsumption of material at the outset in order to enhance the retention process

: the importance of meaning in language and of meaningful contexts of linguistic communication

: parlor games; by associating items either in groups or with some external stimuli, retention is enhanced

* Systematic Forgetting (=cognitive pruning)

: pruning is the elimination of unnecessary clutter and a clearing of the way for more material to enter the cognitive field

: the single blocks are lost to perception, or pruned out, to use the metaphor, and the total structure is perceived as a single whole without clearly defined parts

: language attrition; long-term forgetting can apply to certain linguistic features, center on strength and conditions of initial learning, on motivational factors contributing to forgetting, and on cultural identity

: subsumption theory provides a strong theoretical basis for the rejection of conditioning models of practice and repetition in language teaching

: rote learning can be effective on a short-term basis, but for any long-term retention it fails because of the tremendous buildup of interference

: systematic forgetting-in the early stages of language learning, certain devices (definitions, paradigms, illustrations, or rules) are often used to facilitate subsumption -> these devices can be made initially meaningful by assigning or 'manufacturing' meaningfulness -> cognitive pruning -> automaticity

Constructivist School of Thought

Roger's Humanistic Psychology

: Roger's humanistic psychology has more of an effective focus than a cognitive cone

↳ clinical work in an attempt to be of therapeutic help to individuals

: Roger & Vygotsky - social and interactive nature of learning

: Client-Centered Therapy (1951)

: learning from a phenomenological perspective (in sharp contrast to that of Skinner)

: whole person as a physical and cognitive, but primarily emotional, being

: 'fully functioning persons' live at peace with all of their feelings and reactions

: Roger's focus is away from 'teaching' and toward 'learning'

: the goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning

: learning how to learn is more important than being taught something form the 'superior' vantage point of a teacher who unilaterally decides what shall be taught

: teacher=facilitators

① must be real and genuine

② need to have genuine trust, acceptance,, and a prizing of the other person (student) as a worthy, valuable individual

③ need to communicate openly and empathetically with their students

: in Carl Roger's humanism, if the context for learning is properly created, then human beings will learn everything they need to

: be care not to take the nondirective approach too far, to the point that valuable time is lost in the process of allowing students to 'discover' facts and principles for themselves

: facilitative tension needed for learning (the positive effects of competitiveness in a classroom, as long as that competitiveness does not damage self-esteem and hinder motivation to learn)

: CCL

: Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970)

: importance of the empowerment of students in classrooms

↳ Vigorously objected to traditional 'banking' concepts of education

Transfer

a general term describing the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning

Interference

previously learned material interferes with subsequent material-a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to learned

Overgeneralization

: generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language beyond legitimate bounds

: the incorrect application-negative transfer-of perviously learned second language material to a present second language context

all generalizing involves transfer, and all transfer involves generalizing

Inductive

stores a number of specific instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes the specific instances

classroom learning tends to rely more than it should on deductive reasoning-especially Grammar Translation

Deductive

movement from a generalization to specific instances

communicative second language learning points to the superiority of an inductive approach to rules and generalizations