4. Human Learning
1. Learning and Training
: when you train dog, we need to know entry behavior, goals of the task, methods of training, evaluation procedure
: you must have a comprehensive knowledge of the entry behavior of a person, of objectives you wish to reach, of possible methods that follow from your understanding of the first two factors, and of an evaluation procedure
: these steps derive from your conception of how human beings learn
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Behavioristic viewpoint |
Pavlov's Classical Behaviorism |
: a series of experiences in which he trained a dog to salivate to the tone of a bell : Classical Conditioning : learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli and reflexive responses : a previously neutral stimulus (the sound of the bell) had acquired the power to elicit a response (salivation) that was originally elicited by another stimulus (the smell of meat) : learning -> by the process of conditioning, we build an array of stimulus-response, and more complex behaviors are learned by building up series or chains of responses |
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Skinner's Operant Conditioning |
: Neobehaviorist (because he added a unique dimension to behavioristic psychology -> Respondent Conditioning ), Operant conditioning : Operant behavior is behavior in which one 'operates' on the environment; within this model the importance of stimuli is deemphasized : Thorndike's Law of Effect ↳ Reinforcement (satisfactory consequences) -> stronger association of stimuli and responses ↳ Punishment -> weaker association of stimuli and responses : Punishment can be either the withdrawal of a positive reinforcer or the presentation of an aversive stimulus : the events or stimuli-the reinforcers-that follow a response and that tend to strengthen behavior or increase the probability of a recurrence of that response constitute a powerful force in the control of human behavior : reinforcers are far stronger aspects of learning than is mere association of a prior stimulus with a following response : operants are classes of responses : sets of responses that are emitted and governed by the consequences they produce : respondents are sets of responses that are elicited by identifiable stimuli : punishment, in the long run, does not actually eliminate behavior, but that mild punishment may be necessary for temporary suppression of an undesired response : the best method of extinction... absence of an reinforcement and active reinforcement of alternative responses
* The technology of Teaching (1986) : programmed instruction (carefully designed program of step-by-step reinforcement) : it was limited to very specialized subsets of language
* Verbal Behavior (1957) : language is a system of verbal operants : Skinnerian view of both language and language learning dominated foreign language teaching methodology for several decades (-> controlled practive of verbal operants under carefully designed schedules of reinforcement) : ALM (1950s~ early 1970s) | |
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Rational/ Cognitive stance |
Ausubel's Subsumption Theory |
: learning takes place in the human organism through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions : meaning is not an implicit response, but a 'clearly articulated and precisely differentiated conscious experience'
* Rote VS. Meaningful Learning : rote learning involves the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure : meaningful learning, or subsumption; a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure : any learning situation can be meaningful if ① learners have a meaningful learning set ② the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners : manufacturing meaningfulness-association, memory strategies : systematic, meaningful subsumption of material at the outset in order to enhance the retention process : the importance of meaning in language and of meaningful contexts of linguistic communication : parlor games; by associating items either in groups or with some external stimuli, retention is enhanced
* Systematic Forgetting (=cognitive pruning) : pruning is the elimination of unnecessary clutter and a clearing of the way for more material to enter the cognitive field : the single blocks are lost to perception, or pruned out, to use the metaphor, and the total structure is perceived as a single whole without clearly defined parts : language attrition; long-term forgetting can apply to certain linguistic features, center on strength and conditions of initial learning, on motivational factors contributing to forgetting, and on cultural identity : subsumption theory provides a strong theoretical basis for the rejection of conditioning models of practice and repetition in language teaching : rote learning can be effective on a short-term basis, but for any long-term retention it fails because of the tremendous buildup of interference : systematic forgetting-in the early stages of language learning, certain devices (definitions, paradigms, illustrations, or rules) are often used to facilitate subsumption -> these devices can be made initially meaningful by assigning or 'manufacturing' meaningfulness -> cognitive pruning -> automaticity |
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Constructivist School of Thought |
Roger's Humanistic Psychology |
: Roger's humanistic psychology has more of an effective focus than a cognitive cone ↳ clinical work in an attempt to be of therapeutic help to individuals : Roger & Vygotsky - social and interactive nature of learning : Client-Centered Therapy (1951) : learning from a phenomenological perspective (in sharp contrast to that of Skinner) : whole person as a physical and cognitive, but primarily emotional, being : 'fully functioning persons' live at peace with all of their feelings and reactions : Roger's focus is away from 'teaching' and toward 'learning' : the goal of education is the facilitation of change and learning : learning how to learn is more important than being taught something form the 'superior' vantage point of a teacher who unilaterally decides what shall be taught : teacher=facilitators ① must be real and genuine ② need to have genuine trust, acceptance,, and a prizing of the other person (student) as a worthy, valuable individual ③ need to communicate openly and empathetically with their students
: in Carl Roger's humanism, if the context for learning is properly created, then human beings will learn everything they need to : be care not to take the nondirective approach too far, to the point that valuable time is lost in the process of allowing students to 'discover' facts and principles for themselves : facilitative tension needed for learning (the positive effects of competitiveness in a classroom, as long as that competitiveness does not damage self-esteem and hinder motivation to learn) : CCL : Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970) : importance of the empowerment of students in classrooms ↳ Vigorously objected to traditional 'banking' concepts of education |
6. Types of Learning
: signal learning, stimulus-response learning, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept learning, concept learning, principle learning, problem solving
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Transfer |
a general term describing the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning |
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Interference |
previously learned material interferes with subsequent material-a previous item is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to learned |
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Overgeneralization |
: generalizing a particular rule or item in the second language beyond legitimate bounds : the incorrect application-negative transfer-of perviously learned second language material to a present second language context |
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all generalizing involves transfer, and all transfer involves generalizing | |
8. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
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Inductive |
stores a number of specific instances and induces a general law or rule or conclusion that governs or subsumes the specific instances |
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classroom learning tends to rely more than it should on deductive reasoning-especially Grammar Translation | |
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Deductive |
movement from a generalization to specific instances |
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communicative second language learning points to the superiority of an inductive approach to rules and generalizations |
9. Language Aptitude
: do certain people have a ‘knack’ for learning foreign language?
: Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT)
: Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB)
: these test measured ability to perform focused, analytical, context-reduced activities
: the results may lead biases to both teachers and students
: Dornyei and Skehan (2003), aptitude may be related to various ‘stages’, or what might also be called processes, of second language acquisition
10. Intelligence and Language Learning
: traditional IQ (Intelligence Quotient): linguistic and logical mathematical abilities
: Howard Gardner (1983) advanced a controversial theory of intelligence that blew apart our traditional thoughts about IQ -> different forms of knowing, ‘multiple intelligences’ (p.108)
: Sternberg’s three types of ‘smartness’ (p.109)
: Daniel Goleman’s emotional intelligence, EQ (Emotional Quotient)
: in its traditional definition, intelligence may have little to do with one’s success as a second language learner(people within a wide range of IQs have proven to be successful in acquiring a second language)
↳ but, Gardner attaches other important attributes to the notion of intelligence, attributes that could be crucial to second language success: musical intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal intelligence
: Sternberg’s experiential and contextual abilities cast further light on the components of the ‘knack’ that some people have for quick, efficient, unabashed language acquisition
↳ the EQ (emotional quotient) may be far more important than any other factor in accounting for second language success both in classrooms and in untutored contexts
: effective language learning thus links surface forms of a language with meaningful experiences, as we have already noted in Ausubel’s learning theory
11. Learning Theories in Action: Two language teaching methods in contrast
11-1. The Audiolingual Method
: Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP), or, more colloquially, the ‘Army Method’-pronunciation and pattern drills and conversation practice, none of the grammar and translation found in traditional classes
: Audiolingual Method (ALM)
: behavioristic psychologists advocated conditioning and habitformation models of learning
: success could be more overtly experienced by students as they practiced their dialogs in off-hours
: its ultimate failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency
11-2. Community Language Learning
: Chomskyan revolution in linguistics toward ‘deep structure’ of language, when psychologist began to recognize the fundamentally affective and interpersonal nature of all learning
: cognitive and affective factors
: Community Language Learning (CLL), expressly constructed to put Carl Roger’s theory of learning into action
↳ to facilitate learning in a context of valuing and prizing each individual in the group
↳ in such a surrounding, each person lowers the defenses that prevent open, interpersonal communication
: the teacher’s presence is as a ‘counselor’, the teacher’s role is to center his or her attention on the clients (the students) and their needs
: CLL is an attempt to overcome some of the threatening affective factors in second language learning
↳ but, the counselor-teacher can become too nondirective
↳ the success of CLL depends largely on the translation expertise of the counselor
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